Founded in June 1944 by Walter Miller in Benton Harbor,Michiman. The company originally manufactured only 78 rpm record changers and labeled them simply as "A V-M Product". The brand name "Voice of Music" was suggested by a V-M engineer and first used in 1952.
V-M kept up with each innovation in records and this required significant investment to retool their record changers. First came two speed changers after Columbia records introduced the LP in 1948, then adding 45rpm after RCA brought that innovation to market in 1949, and ultimately ending up with the fourth speed (16 2/3 rpm) for "talking books" in 1954. The changers themselves were innovative - the three and four speed models especially featuring reliable, jam-proof mechanisms.
Amplified phonographs were introduced in the early 1950s, and V-M brought out the Model 700 tape recorder late in 1954. Throughout the '50's and '60's, tape recorders, phonographs, consoles and components by V-M were popular with consumers for a variety of reasons. V-M Corporation's "Educational Systems" tape recorders and phonos with rugged cases were popular with schools and institutions. A brief entry into the audiophile market in 1970 with the V-M "Professional Series" was technically successful - but by this point, V-M Corporation was too financially weak to back a successful marketing campaign, so these products are rare and sought after today.
First and foremost, V-M was a record changer and tape deck supplier to dozens of familiar brand names of their day, such as Zenith and Motorola to name only two good customers. These large production volumes helped V-M keep its own Voice of Music brand profitable for many years. After 1965, the trend became clear that American audio companies were going out of business or shifting production overseas. As V-M's record changer volumes declined, it became difficult for the company to remain profitable. Retailing began to change from small "mom and pop" stores (V-M's strength) to large electronics retailers where V-M was under-represented. The end came in July, 1977 when a power failure in New York prevented a wire transfer of critically needed funds, and the company declared bankruptcy.
Present
In September 1998, the service parts and technical files were transferred to the care of V-M Audio Enthusiasts at the website shown below, for the benefit of V-M owners everywhere. The revival of "vinyl" (records) and tube audio in recent years has sparked a renewed interest in quality built, easy-to-service V-M products, and the internet has facilitated buyers and sellers getting together. V-M Corporation remains a registered corporation in Michigan but no longer manufactures equipment. Its ex-employees still get together twice a year for a pot luck supper in St. Joseph, Michigan
Contents: Top · 0–9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z A
A cappella – Absolute pitch – Accidental – Accompaniment – Ad libitum – Adagio – Added tone chord – Additive rhythm – Album – Aleatoric music – Allegro – Alto – Ambiguity – American Music Awards – Antiphon – Arrangement – Articulation – Aspects of music – Atonality – Audio mixing – Auditory illusion – Authentic performance – Augmentation – Augmented chord B
BACH motif – Back beat – Ballet – Band (music) – Bar (music) – Baroque music – Bass – Bass run – Bassline – Basso – Basso continuo – Beat (music) – Beatmatching – Bel canto – Binary form – Blue note – Blues – Blues ballad – Bohlen-Pierce scale – Boogie woogie – Brahmanada – Braille music – Break (music) – Bridge (music) – British opera C
Cadence (music) – Cadenza – Call and response (music) – Calypso music – Canon (music) – Cantillation – Castrato – Cent (music) – Chaconne – Chamber music – Child singer – Chicano punk – Choir – Chorale – Chord (music) – Chord progression – Chromatic chord – Chromatic fantasia – Chromatic genus – Chromatic scale – Cimbasso – Circle of fifths – Clapping – Clef – Close harmony – coda – Combination tone – Compound metre – Composer – Conductor (music) – Concert band – Conclusion (music) – Consonance – Counterpoint – Cover version – Cubase D
Da capo – Da capo aria – Dance – Dance and music of Latin America – Definite pitch – Definition of music – Deutsch's scale illusion – Diapason – Diapente – Diatessaron – Diatonic functionality – Diatonic scale – Diesis – Diminished chord – Diminished scale – Diminution – Dissonance – DJ mix – Dominant – Drone – DSCH – Dubreq Stylophone – Duet – Duple – Dynamics E
Ear training – Electronic music – Equal temperament – Enharmonic – Ethnomusicology – Exposition F
Falsetto – Feedback – Fifth – Filk music – Finale notation program – Figured bass – Flatted fifth – Folk music – Forte – Fourth – Frequency – Fugue G
Gamelan – Gebrauchsmusik – Genre – Ghost note – Glissando – GNU LilyPond – Grace note – Groove H
Harmonic – Harmonic accompaniment – Harmonic series (music) – Harmony – Hammond organ – Hearing (sense) – Hemiola – Hexachord – Hornbostel-Sachs – Hymn – Hip hop I
Improvisation – Indefinite pitch – Indeterminacy in music – Indian Classical Music – Inharmonic – Instrumentation (music) – Interactive music – Interval (music) – Interval class – Intonation – Intuitive music – Inversion (music) – Irrational rhythm – Isorhythm – Industrial (music) J
Jazz – Jazz standards – Just intonation K
Key (music) – Key signature L
L'istesso – Largo – Larghetto – Leading-tone – Learning music by ear – Legato – Leitmotif – Ligature – Limit (music) – Linear – List of major chord shapes for guitar – List of popular music terms – Lubbock Sound M
Madrigal – Major chord – Major second – Major scale – Major seventh – Major sixth – Major third – Maqam – Mariachi Mathematics of the Western music scale – Meantone temperament – Measure – Melody – Metre (music) – Metronome – Mezzo-soprano – Micropolyphony – Microtonal music – Microtone – Minor chord – Minor second – Minor scale – Minor seventh – Minor sixth – Minor third – Missing fundamental – Mix tape – Mixing – Modern musical symbols – Modulation (music) – Monophony – Motet – Motif (music) – Mouthpiece (brass) – Mouthpiece (woodwind) – Music – Music and politics – Music critic – Music genre – Music history – Music journalist – Music technology – Music theory – Musical acoustics – Musical composition – Musical ensemble – Musical form – Musical instrument – Musical keyboard – Musical mode – Musical notation – Musical ornament – Musical piece – Musical terminology – Musical tuning – Musician – Musicology – Mute (music) N
New interfaces for musical expression – Nonchord tone – Note – Novelty song – Number – Number opera – Numerical sight-singing O
Octave – Octave illusion – Opera – Operetta – Oratorio – Orchestra – Orchestration – Organ – Organology – Ornament – Ostinato – Overtone P
Pastance – Parallel minor/major – Passacaglia – Passion music – Patriotic song – Pensato – Pentatonic scale – Perfect fourth – Perfect fifth – Period (music) – Phonograph – Phrase (music) – Physics of music – Piano – Picardy third – Pipe band – Piston valve – Pitch (music) – Pitch space – Pizzicato – Plainsong – Polyphony – Polyrhythm – Polytonality – Pop music – Power chord – Precompositional – Presto – Pro Tools – Protest song – Pseudo-octave – Psychoacoustics – Pulse – Pythagorean comma – Pythagorean tuning Q
Quartal and quintal harmony – Quodlibet R
Rabindrasangeet – Radio Luxembourg – Raga – Raggamuffin – Range (music) – Reason (program) – Recitative – Record label – Recording industry – Reggae – Register (music) – Relative minor/major – Relative pitch – Relaxation – Remix – Resolution (music) – Resonance – Rhapsody (music) – Rhythm – Rhythmic gesture – Rhythmic unit – Riddim – Riff – Rock music – Roland Corporation – Rosegarden – Rotary valve – Round (music) S
Sampling (music) – Sargam – Scale (music) – Scratching – Second (music) – Secondary dominant – Secundal – Segue (music) – Serial music – Sequence (music) – Seventh – Shape note – Sheet music – Shepard tone – Sibelius notation program – Singing school – Single (music) – Sight reading – Simple meter – Simultaneity – Simultaneity succession – Sixth – Solo (music) – Solfege – Sonata form – Sonata (music) – Song – Soprano – Soul music – Sound – Sound quality – Sound recording – Sound sculpture – Sound system – Stab (music) – Staccato – Steps and skips – Staff – Step – Stochastic – Strähle's construction – String resonance (music) – Subdominant – Substitute dominant – Succession – Suite – Suzuki method – Suspension (music) – Swung note – Symmetry – Sympathetic strings – Symphony – Syncopation – Synthesizer – Syntonic comma T
Tablature – Temperament – Tempo – Tenor – Tension – Ternary form – Tertian – Tertium major – Tertium minor – Tetrachord – Third – Tie (music) – Timbre – Time signature – Time unit box system – Tone cluster – Tone row – Tonic (music) – Tonicization – Tonic Sol-fa – Total chromatic – Transposing instrument – Transposition (music) – Tremolo – Triad (music) – Trill – Triplet – Tritone – Tuning – Tuplet – Tutti – Twelve-tone technique U
Unison V
Verse – Vertical – Vibrato – Video game music – Vienna horn – Vocal music – Voice registers W Wah-wah – Wolf interval X
Contents: Top · 0–9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z A
A cappella – Absolute pitch – Accidental – Accompaniment – Ad libitum – Adagio – Added tone chord – Additive rhythm – Album – Aleatoric music – Allegro – Alto – Ambiguity – American Music Awards – Antiphon – Arrangement – Articulation – Aspects of music – Atonality – Audio mixing – Auditory illusion – Authentic performance – Augmentation – Augmented chord B
BACH motif – Back beat – Ballet – Band (music) – Bar (music) – Baroque music – Bass – Bass run – Bassline – Basso – Basso continuo – Beat (music) – Beatmatching – Bel canto – Binary form – Blue note – Blues – Blues ballad – Bohlen-Pierce scale – Boogie woogie – Brahmanada – Braille music – Break (music) – Bridge (music) – British opera C
Cadence (music) – Cadenza – Call and response (music) – Calypso music – Canon (music) – Cantillation – Castrato – Cent (music) – Chaconne – Chamber music – Child singer – Chicano punk – Choir – Chorale – Chord (music) – Chord progression – Chromatic chord – Chromatic fantasia – Chromatic genus – Chromatic scale – Cimbasso – Circle of fifths – Clapping – Clef – Close harmony – coda – Combination tone – Compound metre – Composer – Conductor (music) – Concert band – Conclusion (music) – Consonance – Counterpoint – Cover version – Cubase D
Da capo – Da capo aria – Dance – Dance and music of Latin America – Definite pitch – Definition of music – Deutsch's scale illusion – Diapason – Diapente – Diatessaron – Diatonic functionality – Diatonic scale – Diesis – Diminished chord – Diminished scale – Diminution – Dissonance – DJ mix – Dominant – Drone – DSCH – Dubreq Stylophone – Duet – Duple – Dynamics E
Ear training – Electronic music – Equal temperament – Enharmonic – Ethnomusicology – Exposition F
Falsetto – Feedback – Fifth – Filk music – Finale notation program – Figured bass – Flatted fifth – Folk music – Forte – Fourth – Frequency – Fugue G
Gamelan – Gebrauchsmusik – Genre – Ghost note – Glissando – GNU LilyPond – Grace note – Groove H
Harmonic – Harmonic accompaniment – Harmonic series (music) – Harmony – Hammond organ – Hearing (sense) – Hemiola – Hexachord – Hornbostel-Sachs – Hymn – Hip hop I
Improvisation – Indefinite pitch – Indeterminacy in music – Indian Classical Music – Inharmonic – Instrumentation (music) – Interactive music – Interval (music) – Interval class – Intonation – Intuitive music – Inversion (music) – Irrational rhythm – Isorhythm – Industrial (music) J
Jazz – Jazz standards – Just intonation K
Key (music) – Key signature L
L'istesso – Largo – Larghetto – Leading-tone – Learning music by ear – Legato – Leitmotif – Ligature – Limit (music) – Linear – List of major chord shapes for guitar – List of popular music terms – Lubbock Sound M
Madrigal – Major chord – Major second – Major scale – Major seventh – Major sixth – Major third – Maqam – Mariachi Mathematics of the Western music scale – Meantone temperament – Measure – Melody – Metre (music) – Metronome – Mezzo-soprano – Micropolyphony – Microtonal music – Microtone – Minor chord – Minor second – Minor scale – Minor seventh – Minor sixth – Minor third – Missing fundamental – Mix tape – Mixing – Modern musical symbols – Modulation (music) – Monophony – Motet – Motif (music) – Mouthpiece (brass) – Mouthpiece (woodwind) – Music – Music and politics – Music critic – Music genre – Music history – Music journalist – Music technology – Music theory – Musical acoustics – Musical composition – Musical ensemble – Musical form – Musical instrument – Musical keyboard – Musical mode – Musical notation – Musical ornament – Musical piece – Musical terminology – Musical tuning – Musician – Musicology – Mute (music) N
New interfaces for musical expression – Nonchord tone – Note – Novelty song – Number – Number opera – Numerical sight-singing O
Octave – Octave illusion – Opera – Operetta – Oratorio – Orchestra – Orchestration – Organ – Organology – Ornament – Ostinato – Overtone P
Pastance – Parallel minor/major – Passacaglia – Passion music – Patriotic song – Pensato – Pentatonic scale – Perfect fourth – Perfect fifth – Period (music) – Phonograph – Phrase (music) – Physics of music – Piano – Picardy third – Pipe band – Piston valve – Pitch (music) – Pitch space – Pizzicato – Plainsong – Polyphony – Polyrhythm – Polytonality – Pop music – Power chord – Precompositional – Presto – Pro Tools – Protest song – Pseudo-octave – Psychoacoustics – Pulse – Pythagorean comma – Pythagorean tuning Q
Quartal and quintal harmony – Quodlibet R
Rabindrasangeet – Radio Luxembourg – Raga – Raggamuffin – Range (music) – Reason (program) – Recitative – Record label – Recording industry – Reggae – Register (music) – Relative minor/major – Relative pitch – Relaxation – Remix – Resolution (music) – Resonance – Rhapsody (music) – Rhythm – Rhythmic gesture – Rhythmic unit – Riddim – Riff – Rock music – Roland Corporation – Rosegarden – Rotary valve – Round (music) S
Sampling (music) – Sargam – Scale (music) – Scratching – Second (music) – Secondary dominant – Secundal – Segue (music) – Serial music – Sequence (music) – Seventh – Shape note – Sheet music – Shepard tone – Sibelius notation program – Singing school – Single (music) – Sight reading – Simple meter – Simultaneity – Simultaneity succession – Sixth – Solo (music) – Solfege – Sonata form – Sonata (music) – Song – Soprano – Soul music – Sound – Sound quality – Sound recording – Sound sculpture – Sound system – Stab (music) – Staccato – Steps and skips – Staff – Step – Stochastic – Strähle's construction – String resonance (music) – Subdominant – Substitute dominant – Succession – Suite – Suzuki method – Suspension (music) – Swung note – Symmetry – Sympathetic strings – Symphony – Syncopation – Synthesizer – Syntonic comma T
Tablature – Temperament – Tempo – Tenor – Tension – Ternary form – Tertian – Tertium major – Tertium minor – Tetrachord – Third – Tie (music) – Timbre – Time signature – Time unit box system – Tone cluster – Tone row – Tonic (music) – Tonicization – Tonic Sol-fa – Total chromatic – Transposing instrument – Transposition (music) – Tremolo – Triad (music) – Trill – Triplet – Tritone – Tuning – Tuplet – Tutti – Twelve-tone technique U
Unison V
Verse – Vertical – Vibrato – Video game music – Vienna horn – Vocal music – Voice registers W Wah-wah – Wolf interval X
A music genre is a categorical and typological construct that identifies musical sounds as belonging to a particular category and type of music that can be distinguished from other types of music.
There are several approaches to genre. In his book Form in Tonal Music, Douglass M. Green lists the madrigal, the motet, the canzona, the ricercar, and the dance as examples of genres (from the Renaissance period). According to Green, "Beethoven's Op. 61 and Mendelssohn's Op. 64 are identical in genre - both are violin concertos - but different in form. Mozart's Rondo for Piano, K. 511, and the Agnus Dei from his Mass, K. 317 are quite different in genre but happen to be similar in form."[1] Some treat the terms genre and style as the same, and state that genre should be defined as pieces of music that share a certain style or "basic musical language".[2] Others state that genre and style are two separate terms, and that secondary characteristics such as subject matter can also differentiate between genres.[3] A music genre (or sub-genre) could be defined by the techniques, the styles, the context and the themes (content, spirit). Also, geographical origin sometimes is used to define the music genre, though a single geographical category will normally include a wide variety of sub-genres.
Kembrew McLeod, in an essay entitled "Genres, Subgenres, Sub-Subgenres and More",[4] suggested that in electronic music, "the naming of new subgenres can be linked to a variety of influences, such as the rapidly evolving nature of the music, accelerated consumer culture, and the synergy created by record company marketing strategies and music magazine hype. The appropriation of the musics of minorities by straight, middle and upper-middle-class Whites in the United States and Great Britain plays a part, and the rapid and ongoing naming process within electronic/dance music subcultures acts as a gate-keeping mechanism, as well."
Categorization
A list of genres of music (including sub genres) can be found at List of music genres. However, there are a number of criteria with which one may classify musical genres, including:
* The Art/Popular/Traditional distinction * Regional and national distinctions * Fusional origins
Art music Art music primarily refers to classical music, including Classical music, or others listed at List of art music traditions (including non-European classical music), Contemporary classical music (including Electronic music, Experimental music and Minimalist music). Art music may also include certain forms of Jazz (even though jazz is primarily a form of popular music). Popular music
The usual stereotype of "popular music" is music belonging to any of a number of musical styles that are accessible to the general public and are disseminated by one or more of the mass media. For a critical introduction, see the work of Richard Middleton (e.g. Studying Popular Music 1998) and Starr/Waterman American Popular Music (2004)
The relationship between (particularly, the relative value of) classical music and popular music is a controversial question. Some partisans of classical music[who?] may claim that classical music constitutes art and popular music only light entertainment.[citation needed] However, many popular works show a high level of artistry and musical innovation and many classical works are unabashedly crowd-pleasing. The elevation of classical music to a position of special value is closely connected to the concept of a Western canon, and to theories of educational perennialism.
The very distinction between classical and popular music has sometimes been blurred in the border regions [5], for instance minimalist music and light classics. In this respect music is like fiction, which likewise draws a distinction between classics and popular fiction that is not always easy to maintain. “ Neat divisions between 'folk' and 'popular', and 'popular' and 'art', are impossible to find ... arbitrary criteria [are used] to define the complement of 'popular'. 'Art' music, for example, is generally regarded as by nature complex, difficult, demanding; 'popular' music then has to be defined as 'simple', 'accessible', 'facile'. But many pieces commonly thought of as 'art' (Handel's 'Hallelujah Chorus', many Schubert songs, many Verdi arias) have qualities of simplicity; conversely, it is by no means obvious that the Sex Pistols' records were 'accessible', Frank Zappa's work 'simple', or Billie Holiday's 'facile'." (Middleton, 1990) ”
Traditional music
Traditional music is the modern name for what used to be called "Folk music", before the term "Folk music" was expanded to include a lot of non-traditional material. The defining characteristics of traditional music are:
* Oral transmission: The music is passed down, or learned, through singing and listening and sometimes dancing * Cultural basis: The music derives from and is part of the traditions of a particular region or culture.
Regional and national music
It is possible to categorize music geographically. For example, the term "Australian music" could include Australian rock music, Australian traditional music in the European style (e.g. Waltzing Matilda), Aboriginal Australian music, Australian classical music, and Australian Jazz. Fusional origins
In the West, nearly all music except Traditional music has a fusional origin.
A fusion genre is a music genre that combines two or more genres. For example, rock and roll originally developed as a fusion of blues, gospel and country music. The main characteristics of fusion genres are variations in tempo, rhythm and sometimes the use of long musical "journeys" that can be divided into smaller parts, each with their own dynamics, style and tempo.
Artists who work in fusion genres are often difficult to categorise within non-fusion styles. Most styles of fusion music are influenced by various musical genres. While there are many reasons for this, the main reason is that most genres evolved out of other genres. When the new genre finally identifies itself as separate, there is often a large gray area in which musicians are left. These artists generally consider themselves part of both genres. A musician who plays music that is dominantly blues, influenced by rock, is often labelled a blues-rock musician. The first genre is the one from which the new one evolved. The second genre is the newer and less-dominant genre in the artist's playing. An example of a blues-rock group would be Stevie Ray Vaughan and Double Trouble. Vaughan, a Texas blues guitarist, surrounded by a world in which rock was dominating music, used rock and blues together.
Music notation or musical notation is any system which represents aurally perceived music, through the use of written symbols.
Western history
The earliest form of musical notation can be found in a cuneiform tablet that was created at Nippur, Iraq in about 2000 B.C. The tablet represents fragmentary instructions for performing music, that the music was composed in harmonies of thirds, and that it was written using a diatonic scale.[1] A tablet from about 1250 B.C. shows a more developed form of notation.[2] Although the interpretation of the notation system is still controversial, it is clear that the notation indicates the names of strings on a lyre, the tuning of which is described in other tablets.[3] Although they were fragmentary, these tablets represent the earliest recorded melodies found anywhere in the world.[3]
Ancient Greece
Photograph of the original stone at Delphi containing the second of the two hymns to Apollo. The music notation is the line of occasional symbols above the main, uninterrupted line of Greek lettering.
Ancient Greek musical notation was capable of representing pitch and note-duration, and to a limited extent, harmony.[citation needed] It was in use from at least the 6th century BC until approximately the 4th century AD; several complete compositions and fragments of compositions using this notation survive. The notation consists of symbols placed above text syllables. An example of a complete composition is the Seikilos epitaph, which has been variously dated between the 2nd century BC to the 1st century AD. Three hymns by Mesomedes of Crete exist in manuscript. The Delphic Hymns, dated to the 2nd century BC, also use this notation, but they are not completely preserved. Ancient Greek notation appears to have fallen out of use around the time of the Decline of the Roman Empire.
Arab world
Al-Kindi (801–873 AD) was the first great theoretician of Arabic music. He proposed adding a fifth string to the 'ud and discussed the cosmological connotations of music. He surpassed the achievement of the Greek musicians, in using the alphabetical annotation for one eighth. He published fifteen treatises on music theory, but only five have survived.[4]Al-Farabi (872–950), the influential Persian/Turkic polymath, wrote a notable book on music theory entitled Kitab al-Musiqa al-Kabir (The Great Book of Music). His pure Arabian tone system is still used in Arabic music.[5]
Arabic maqam is the system of melodic modes used in traditional Arabic music, which is mainly melodic. The word maqam in Arabic means place, location or rank. The Arabic maqam is a melody type. Each maqam is built on a scale, and carries a tradition that defines its habitual phrases, important notes, melodic development and modulation. Both compositions and improvisations in traditional Arabic music are based on the maqam system. Maqams can be realized with either vocal or instrumental music, and do not include a rhythmic component.
In 1252, Safi al-Din developed a unique form of musical notation, where rhythms were represented by geometric representation. A similar geometric representation would not appear in the Western world until 1987, when Kjell Gustafson published a method to represent a rhythm as a two-dimensional graph.[6]
A theory on the origins of the Western solfège musical notation suggests that it may have had Arabic origins. It has been argued that the solfège syllables (do, re, mi, fa, sol, la, ti) may have been derived from the syllables of the Arabic solmization system Durr-i-Mufassal ("Separated Pearls") (dal, ra, mim, fa, sad, lam). This origin theory was first proposed by Francis Meninski in his Thesaurus Linguarum Orientalum (1680) and then by Jean-Baptiste Thillais Delaborde in his Essai sur la Musique Ancienne et Moderne (1780).[7]
Early Europe
Scholar and music theorist Isidore of Seville, writing in the early 7th century, remarked that it was impossible to notate music.[citation needed] By the middle of the 9th century, however, a form of notation began to develop in monasteries in Europe for Gregorian chant, using symbols known as neumes; the earliest surviving musical notation of this type is in the Musica disciplina of Aurelian of Réôme, from about 850. There are scattered survivals from the Iberian Peninsula before this time, of a type of notation known as Visigothic neumes, but its few surviving fragments have not yet been deciphered.[citation needed]
The ancestors of modern symbolic music notation originated in the Roman Catholic Church, as monks developed methods to put plainchant (sacred songs) to parchment. The earliest of these ancestral systems, from the 8th century, did not originally utilise a staff, and used neum (or neuma or pneuma), a system of dots and strokes that were placed above the text. Although capable of expressing considerable musical complexity, they could not exactly express pitch or time and served mainly as a reminder to one who already knew the tune, rather than a means by which one who had never heard the tune could sing it exactly at sight.[citation needed]
Early Music Notation
To address the issue of exact pitch, a staff was introduced consisting originally of a single horizontal line, but this was progressively extended until a system of four parallel, horizontal lines was standardized. The vertical positions of each mark on the staff indicated which pitch or pitches it represented (pitches were derived from a musical mode, or key).[citation needed] Although the four-line staff has remained in use until the present day for plainchant, for other types of music, staffs with differing numbers of lines have been used at various times and places for various instruments.[vague] The modern five-line staff was first adopted in France and became almost universal by the 16th century (although the use of staffs with other numbers of lines was still widespread well into the 17th century).[citation needed]
Because the neum system arose from the need to notate songs, exact timing was initially not a particular issue because the music would generally follow the natural rhythms of the Latin language. However, by the 10th century a system of representing up to four note lengths had been developed.[citation needed] These lengths were relative rather than absolute and depended on the duration of the neighbouring notes. It was not until the 14th century that something like the present system of fixed note lengths arose. Starting in the 15th century, vertical bar lines were used to divide the staff into sections.[citation needed] These did not initially divide the music into measures (bars) of equal length (as most music then featured far fewer regular rhythmic patterns than in later periods), but appear to have been introduced as an aid to the eye for "lining up" notes on different staves that were to be played or sung at the same time.[citation needed] The use of regular measures (bars) became commonplace by the end of the 17th century.
The founder of what is now considered the standard music stave was Guido d'Arezzo,[citation needed] an Italian Benedictine monk who lived from 995–1050. His revolutionary method—combining a four-line stave with the first form of notes known as 'neumes'—was the precursor to the five-line stave, which was introduced in the 14th century and is still in use today.[citation needed] Guido D'Arezzo's achievements paved the way for the modern form of written music, music books, and the modern concept of a composer.[citation needed]
An example of modern musical notation: Prelude, Op. 28, No. 7, by Frederic Chopin
Modern music notation originated in European classical music and is now used by musicians of many different genres throughout the world.
The system uses a five-line staff. Pitch is shown by placement of notes on the staff (sometimes modified by accidentals), and duration is shown with different note values and additional symbols such as dots and ties. Notation is read from left to right, which makes setting music for right-to-left scripts difficult.
A staff (or stave, in British English) of written music generally begins with a clef, which indicates the position of one particular note on the staff. The treble or G clef was originally a letter G and it identifies the second line up on the five line staff as the note G above middle C. The bass or F clef shows the position of the note F below middle C. Notes representing a pitch outside of the scope of the five line staff can be represented using ledger lines, which provide a single note with additional lines and spaces.
Following the clef, the key signature on a staff indicates the key of the piece by specifying certain notes to be flat or sharp throughout the piece, unless otherwise indicated.
Following the key signature is the time signature. Measures (bars) divide the piece into groups of beats, and the time signatures specify those groupings.
Directions to the player regarding matters such as tempo and dynamics are added above or below the staff. For vocal music, lyrics are written. For short pauses (breaths), retakes (looks like ') are added.
In music for ensembles, a "score" shows music for all players together, while "parts" contain only the music played by an individual musician. A score can be constructed from a complete set of parts and vice versa. The process can be laborious but computer software offers a more convenient and flexible method.
Variations
Percussion notation conventions are varied because of the wide range of percussion instruments. Percussion instruments are generally grouped into two categories: pitched and non-pitched. The notation of non-pitched percussion instruments is the more problematic and less standardized.
Figured bass notation originated in Baroquebasso continuo parts. It is also used extensively in accordion notation. The bass notes of the music are conventionally notated, along with numbers and other signs which determine the chords to be played. It does not, however, specify the exact pitches of the harmony, leaving that for the performer to improvise.
A lead sheet
A lead sheet specifies only the melody, lyrics and harmony, using one staff with chord symbols placed above and lyrics below. It is used to capture the essential elements of a popular song without specifying how the song should be arranged or performed.
A chord chart
A chord chart or "chart" contains little or no melodic information at all but provides detailed harmonic and rhythmic information, using slash notation and rhythmic notation. This is the most common kind of written music used by professional session musicians playing jazz or other forms of popular music and is intended primarily for the rhythm section (usually containing piano, guitar, bass and drums).
Simpler chord charts for songs may contain only the chord changes, placed above the lyrics where they occur. Such charts depend on prior knowledge of the melody, and are used as reminders in performance or informal group singing.
The shape note system is found in some church hymnals, sheet music, and song books, especially in the Southern United States. Instead of the customary elliptical note head, note heads of various shapes are used to show the position of the note on the major scale. Sacred Harp is one of the most popular tune books using shape notes.
The Indian scholar and musical theorist Pingala (c. 200 BC), in his Chanda Sutra, used marks indicating long and short syllables to indicate meters in Sanskrit poetry.
In the notation of Indian rāga, a solfege-like system called sargam is used. As in Western solfege, there are names for the seven basic pitches of a major scale (Shadja, Rishabh, Gandhar, Madhyam, Pancham, Dhaivat and Nishad, usually shortened Sa Re Ga ma Pa Dha Ni). The tonic of any scale is named Sa, and the dominant Pa. Sa is fixed in any scale, and Pa is fixed at a fifth above it (a Pythagorean fifth rather than an equal-tempered fifth). These two notes are known as achala swar ('fixed notes'). Each of the other five notes, Re, Ga, ma, Dha and Ni, can take a 'regular' (shuddha) pitch, which is equivalent to its pitch in a standard major scale (thus, shuddha Re, the second degree of the scale, is a whole-step higher than Sa), or an altered pitch, either a half-step above or half-step below the shuddha pitch. Re, Ga, Dha and Ni all have altered partners that are a half-step lower (Komal-"flat") (thus, komal Re is a half-step higher than Sa). Ma has an altered partner that is a half-step higher (teevra-"sharp") (thus, tivra Ma is an augmented fourth above Sa). Re, Ga, ma, Dha and Ni are called vikrut swar ('movable notes'). In the written system of Indian notation devised by Ravi Shankar, the pitches are represented by Western letters. Capital letters are used for the achala swar, and for the higher variety of all the vikrut swar. Lowercase letters are used for the lower variety of the vikrut swar.
Other systems exist for non-twelve-tone equal temperament and non-Western music, such as the Indian svar lippi. New systems that remove handicaps in existing systems are also being developed like Ome Swarlipi.
The earliest known examples of text referring to music in China are inscriptions on musical instruments found in the Tomb of Marquis Ye of Zeng (d. 433 B.C.). Sets of 41 chimestones and 65 bells bore lengthy inscriptions concerning pitches, scales, and transposition. The bells still sound the pitches that their inscriptions refer to. Although no notated musical compositions were found, the inscriptions indicate that the system was sufficiently advanced to allow for musical notation. Two systems of pitch nomenclature existed, one for relative pitch and one for absolute pitch. For relative pitch, a solmization system was used.[1]
The tablature of the guqin is unique and complex; the older form is composed of written words describing how to play a melody step-by-step using the plain language of the time, i.e. Descriptive Notation (Classical Chinese); the newer form, composed of bits of Chinese characters put together to indicate the method of play is called Prescriptive Notation. Rhythm is only vaguely indicated in terms of phrasing. Tablatures for the qin are collected in what is called qinpu.
The jianpu system of notation (probably an adaptation of a French Galin-Paris-Cheve system) had gained widespread acceptance by 1900. In this system, notes of the scale are numbered. For a typical Pentatonic scale, the numbers 1,2,3,5,6 would be used as notes and 0 as rests. Dots above or below a numeral indicate the octave of the note it represents. Key signatures, barlines, and time signatures are also employed. Many symbols from Western standard notation, such as bar lines, time signatures, accidentals, tie and slur, and the expression markings are also used. The number of dashes following a numeral represents the number of crotchets (4th notes) by which the note extends. The number of underlines is analogous to the number of flags or beams on notes or rests in standard notation. In the present-day jianpu system, the melody is notated alone or with chords. Harmonic and rhythmic elements are left to the discretion of the performers.
Japanese music is highly diversified, and therefore requires various systems of notation. In Japanese shakuhachi music, for example, glissandos and timbres are often more significant than distinct pitches, whereas taiko notation focuses on discrete strokes.
Notation plays a relatively minor role in the oral traditions of Indonesia. However, in Java and Bali, several systems were devised beginning at the end of the 19th century, initially for archival purposes. Today the most widespread are cipher notations ("not angka" in the broadest sense) in which the pitches are represented with some subset of the numbers 1 to 7, with 1 corresponding to either highest note of a particular octave, as in Sundanesegamelan, or lowest, as in the kepatihan notation of Javanesegamelan. Notes in the ranges outside the central octave are represented with one or more dots above or below the each number. For the most part, these cipher notations are mainly used to notate the skeletal melody (the balungan) and vocal parts (gerongan), although transcriptions of the elaborating instrument variations are sometimes used for analysis and teaching. Drum parts are notated with a system of symbols largely based on letters representing the vocables used to learn and remember drumming patterns; these symbols are typically laid out in a grid underneath the skeletal melody for a specific or generic piece. The symbols used for drum notation (as well as the vocables represented) are highly variable from place to place and performer to performer. In addition to these current systems, two older notations used a kind of staff: the Solonese script could capture the flexible rhythms of the pesinden with a squiggle on a horizontal staff, while in Yogyakarta a ladder-like vertical staff allowed notation of the balungan by dots and also included important drum strokes. In Bali, there are a few books published of Gamelan gender wayang pieces, employing alphabetical notation in the old Balinese script.
Composers and scholars both Indonesian and foreign have also mapped the slendro and pelogtuning systems of gamelan onto the western staff, with and without various symbols for microtones. The Dutch composer Ton de Leeuw also invented a three line staff for his composition Gending. However, these systems do not enjoy widespread use.
In the second half of the twentieth century, Indonesian musicians and scholars extended cipher notation to other oral traditions, and a diatonic scale cipher notation has become common for notating western-related genres (church hymns, popular songs, and so forth). Unlike the cipher notation for gamelan music, which uses a "fixed Do" (that is, 1 always corresponds to the same pitch, within the natural variability of gamelan tuning), Indonesian diatonic cipher notation is "moveable-Do" notation, so scores must indicate which pitch corresponds to the number 1 (for example, "1=C").
Other systems and practices
Cipher notation
In many cultures, including Chinese (jianpu or gongche), Indonesian (kepatihan), and Indian (sargam), the "sheet music" consists primarily of the numbers, letters or native characters representing notes in order. Those different systems are collectively known as cipher notations. The numbered notation is an example, so are letter notation and Solfège if written in musical sequence.
Solfège is a way of assigning syllables to names of the musical scale. In order, they are today: Do Re Mi Fa Sol La Ti Do' (for the octave). The classic variation is: Do Re Mi Fa Sol La Si Do' . These functional names of the musical notes were introduced by Guido of Arezzo (c.991 – after 1033) using the beginning syllables of the first six musical lines of the Latin hymn Ut queant laxis. The original sequence was Ut Re Mi Fa Sol La, where each verse would start a note higher. "Ut" later became "Do". The equivalent syllables used in Indian music are: Sa Ri Ga Ma Pa Dha Ni, while the 'bilinear music notation' system offers a fully chromatic method.[citation needed] See also: solfège, sargam, Kodály Hand Signs. In China Xi is used instead of Ti.
Tonic sol-fa is a type of notation using the initial letters of solfège.
The notes of the 12-tone scale can be written by their letter names A–G, possibly with a trailing sharp or flat symbol, such as A♯ or B♭. This is the most common way of specifying a note in English speech or written text.
In Northern Europe, a similar letter system ranging from A to H is used, and instead of the sharp and flat symbols, the syllables "is" (for sharp) or "es" (for flat) are used; e.g. the note a semitone above C is either Cis or Des. H stands for the English B, while Northern European B stands for English B♭.
Tablature was first used in the Middle Ages for organ music and later in the Renaissance for lute music.[8] In most lute tablatures, a staff is used, but instead of pitch values, the lines of the staff represent the strings of the instrument. The frets to be fingered are written on each line, indicated by letters or numbers. Rhythm is written separately and durations are relative and indicated by horizontal space between notes. In later periods, lute and guitar music was written with standard notation. Tablature caught interest again in the late 20th century for popular guitar music and other fretted instruments, being easy to transcribe and share over the internet in ASCII format. Websites like OLGA.net (currently off-line pending legal disputes) have archives of text-based popular music tablature.
Klavar notation (or "klavarskribo") is a chromatic system of notation geared mainly towards keyboard instruments, which transposes the usual "graph" of music. The pitches are indicated horizontally, with "staff" lines in twos and threes like the keyboard, and the sequence of music is read vertically from top to bottom. A considerable body of repertoire has been transcribed into Klavar notation. Klavar notation eliminates the need of accidentals and key signatures, and its advocates claim that this facilitates music-reading.
12-note non-equal temperament
Sometimes the pitches of music written in just intonation are notated with the frequency ratios, while Ben Johnston has devised a system for representing just intonation with traditional western notation and the addition of accidentals which indicate the cents a pitch is to be lowered or raised.
Chromatic staff notations
Over the past three centuries, hundreds of music notation systems have been proposed as alternatives to traditional western music notation. Many of these systems seek to improve upon traditional notation by using a "chromatic staff" in which each of the 12 pitch classes has its own unique place on the staff. Examples are the Ailler-Brennink notation, Jacques-Daniel Rochat's Dodeka system, Tom Reed's Twinline notation, John Keller's Express Stave, and José A. Sotorrio's Bilinear Music Notation. These notation systems do not require the use of standard key signatures, accidentals, or clef signs. They also represent interval relationships more consistently and accurately than traditional notation. The Music Notation Project (formerly known as the Music Notation Modernization Association) has a website with information on many of these notation systems.
Parsons code is used to encode music so that it can be easily searched. This style is designed to be used by individuals without any musical background.
Braille music is a complete, well developed, and internationally accepted musical notation system that has symbols and notational conventions quite independent of print music notation. It is linear in nature, similar to a printed language and different from the two-dimensional nature of standard printed music notation. To a degree Braille music resembles musical markup languages such as XML for Music or NIFF.
Many computer programs have been developed for creating music notation (called scorewriters or music notation software). Music may also be stored in various digital file formats for purposes other than graphic notation output.
Perspectives of musical notation in composition and musical performance
According to Philip Tagg and Richard Middleton, musicology and to a degree European-influenced musical practice suffer from a 'notational centricity', a methodology slanted by the characteristics of notation.[9]
Notation-centric training induces particular forms of listening, and these then tend to be applied to all sorts of music, appropriately or not.[citation needed] Musicological methods tend to foreground those musical parameters which can be easily notated...they tend to neglect or have difficulty with widened parameters which are not easily notated.[citation needed] Examples include the unique vocal style of Joni Mitchell and the String Quartets of Elliott Sharp. Because of the limitations of conventional musical notation, many present-day composers of various genres prefer to compose music which is either not notated, or notated only through the computer language of digital recording.[citation needed]
Patents
Recent US patent 6987220 on a new color based musical notation scheme
In some countries, new musical notations can be patented. In the United States, for example, about 90 patents have been issued on new notation systems. The earliest patent, U.S. Patent 1,383 was published in 1839.
Colleges of music and university schools of music are tertiary level institutions, and they may either be independent or part of a university. Many music schools originated as vocational training centers for would-be professional musicians, often outside the main academic structure. These institutions have retained an emphasis on performance into the 21st century, while also adopting a more formal academic approach. On the other hand there are university music departments, which originally placed more emphasis on academic study of music, but often place greater emphasis on performance now than they did in the past. The two groups overlap more than they used to, with the specific balance of vocational training and academic study varying from one institution to another.
In the late 7th century, the Schola Cantorum, school of singers, was founded by the Roman Catholic Church, may be the first professional music school in history. Soon after, the Chinese Royal Academy was set up by Emperor Gaozu of Tang in the purpose to teach music, theater, and dance for court entertainment, being the first school to teach singing, instrumental performing, acting, and such.
Music schools in Germany cater for students from an early age to postgraduate degrees. They exist within and outwith the formal education system. Fulltime music education with Musikgymnasiums can begin as early as 10 years of age.
Musikschulen
Public Music Schools are charities of the musical education of children, adolescents and adults. They are usually in public ownership as an Association or comply with a public mission. They supplement, rather than replacing music instruction in school. Public Music Schools can be found in most cities and towns. There were 914 public music schools , as of 1 January 2009. Private Music Schools also exist such as "Musik Froehlich" Or "Yamaha Schools of Music "
Musikgymnasium
Music Gymnasiums are secondary schools with a musical Focus which are designed to prepare children (from as young as 10/11) specifically for a musical education. Music gymnasiums can be Day schools or Boarding. Music Gymnasiums include special musical subjects such as Rhythm, Music Theory, Ear Training, Composition Student’s normally study two musical instruments including the Piano.
Germany has 24 Musikhochschulen which carry out professional music training. These institutions have university status and are financed by the bundeslander (states) The range of courses covers all musical disciplines including composition, music theory, conducting, performance (singing & instruments) and musicology.
Music schools in Scotland are available at several levels. Formal music education begins at 4½ years and can progress as high as postgraduate studies
Music Service
Music services are working in almost all state schools and provide much of their instruction during the regular school day. Most of them offer instrumental tuition for pupils in their schools. On average one instrumental / vocal lesson lasts from 30 minutes and is usually given once a week.
A primary school is usually limited in the numbers of pupils they provide lessons to and lessons usually comprise of a small group of 2 to 4 children.
Most independent (fee-paying) schools work on a similar basis to the above. Some independent schools such as Loretto School also give music scholarships.
Centres of Excellence
Scotland has four centres of excellence. These schools select a small number of pupils who show a special ability in music. Admission is by audition. The schools are located within comprehensive schools from which they receive normal academic classes. Students are attracted from within the local region and even nationally.
The schools comprise of;
Douglas Academy Music School at Douglas Academy, Milngavie, near Glasgow
Aberdeen City Music School at Dyce Academy Aberdeen
The number of music students is relatively small in comparison with the host school. Secondary students at the City of Edinburgh Music school are 30-40 compared to 1,000 within the host High School. Typically, music students receive individual instrument lessons, theory and practice time within the music school. The City of Edinburgh Music School is the only 'centre of excellence' which directly operates within a primary school. The schools are funded by the Local Education Authority within which they are located.
Specialist Music School
St Mary's Music School is a specialist music school in Edinburgh, Scotland, for children aged 9–18. The school offers education to musically talented children and is the only specialist full-time music school in Scotland. In addition to their main studies, students receive intensive instruction on a solo instrument and a program of music according to their age. This includes ear training, chamber music, chorus, composition, jazz and music technology.
Entry is solely by audition. Successful applicants receive financial support through the Scottish Government’s Aided Places Scheme. Students combine both academic and music studies within the school. The school is also the choir school of St. Mary's Episcopal Cathedral and all it's 70 students are either instrumentalists or choristers. It attracts it's pupils nationally, from the rest of the UK and abroad.
Amateur or Private Schools of Music offers music education outside the general education system for students aged 4 to 20 + years. In general, students attend these schools, weekend or evening. The schools are, for example those provided by individuals, charitable or commercial organizations. Examples include the North East of Scotland Music School, Portobello Music School and Yamaha Music School.
In addition qualified teachers provide musical training outside of an establishment or the mainstream education system for pupils aged 4 to 20+ years. The objective of education varies from amateur to training (pre-) professional music training, according to the personal ambitions of students.
Universities and Colleges
A number of universities have music departments and offer degrees in music - Bachelor, Master and Doctorate. This can be performance related and/or music theory which can be combined with other subjects. Scottish universities offering degrees are as follows;
The Royal Scottish Academy of Music and Drama (RSAMD) is Scotland’s Conservatoire of music, theatre and dance. Although there is some overlap with the music departments of Universities, the Academy seeks to be practical and focuses on career development. In 1993 the RSAMD was first in the United Kingdom which was granted to give their own degrees. Research degrees are validated by the University of St Andrews.
Junior Academy
The Royal Scottish Academy of Music and Drama operates a Junior Academy, with classes on Saturdays during term-time. Approximately 250 students attend and the academy is intended for those children with above average musical ability and potential. The school day includes choir, theory and musicianship classes and principal study lesson. The day also includes orchestral and chamber music rehearsals.
Secondary music schools are regular four-year secondary schools, which provide a broad knowledge in applied and theoretical areas of music, as well as in humanities. After completion of all the exams, including juries at the end of the first three years and, usually, at the end of the first term of each year, a student must also present one full recital at the end of the last year (vocal-instrumentaldepartment) or pass a matura in several theoretical courses (theoretical department).
In the United States, there are four types of music schools. Three of them follow the more traditional formats of music education. The last one is more informal and includes schools that teach the history and performance of world music.
Preparatory schools
The first type and seemingly the most prevalent (though not the largest) are preparatory schools. Almost all of the major conservatories and music schools of the United States also carry a preparatory program, which trains elementary school-age children and high school-age youths in music performance, dance, or other artistic endeavors. The top students from the preparatory programs may continue their studies at the post-secondary level, and enter professional training programs. There are also 3 boarding prepatory schools in the US that offer pre-professional training in music at a college level. They are: Idyllwild Arts Academy, Interlochen Center for the Arts, and Walnut Hill School
Independent conservatories
Conservatories are the most individual and popular type of music school. Conservatories completely focus on music and do not specialize in anything else. Usually emphasis within the school will be focused on either "Classical" or "Contemporary" studies, though in recent years, this divide has begun to meld. Some conservatories also include instruction in drama and dance, most notably the Juilliard School, however this instruction is usually not considered part of the "Conservatory" part of the School. In the Juilliard School, for example, there are three schools each operating quasi-independently; the Juilliard School of Music is the only true "Conservatory" part of the school.
Notable Classical conservatories in the United States are:
Often, academic requirements for conservatories are merely supplemental to a music student's education and career. This makes them very popular with students who are aiming at a professional performance career, and who do not wish to do all of the academic requirements that are normally required at music schools that are part of a larger university system.
As part of a larger university
While closely related to independent conservatories, this type of schools is where a music school is amalgamated as part of a larger university using the university's resources.
Notable examples of this type of music school are:
These schools are somewhat inbetween a university music school and an independent conservatory.
Several conservatories and contemporary music (jazz) schools that are tied to a university often function as a separate entity while being attached to a university. There are several reasons that music conservatories want to be affiliated with universities. Being affiliated with a university may enable a music college to offer a broader education to its students, because it enables students from the music college to take liberal arts courses from the university (e.g., English literature, history, etc) as well as enabling musically-gifted students from the main university campus to have access to conservatory-grade music lessons. As well, with the affiliation, the students from the music college may be able to use the facilities of the university, such as the gym, swimming pool, and health services. Finally, affiliation with a university may enable a music college to offer a broader range of degrees, such as the Master of Music degree (M.Mus.), which the university may be able to grant. However, because of the separation, students are often given more freedom in choosing their curriculum that those in a typical university music school. For example, while they have the option of taking classes at the main university campus, they are generally not required to do so. Likewise, more academically-minded music students are given more freedom to pursue their non-musical interests than they would be at a regular, independent conservatory.
Notable cases of conservatories that are affiliated with universities are the Eastman School of Music (affiliated with the University of Rochester), The Hartt School (affiliated with the University of Hartford), Mannes College (affiliated with the New School), and the Peabody Institute (affiliated with The Johns Hopkins University). All of these conservatories were independent schools before joining a larger entity. For example, Eastman and Mannes, while having separate admissions offices than the larger university, both share the larger's bursars and student services offices. These schools are also removed from their respective university's campuses further showing their independence.
Though some of these music schools do forego requiring prospective applicants to meet university admission standards, most still follow a strict complementary structure of general education along with music education.
Other
The fourth type of music school is the most informal. These schools are not incorporated in terms of their recognition as a school entitled to non-profit legal status. Almost anyone can attend these schools and pay a for-profit fee for instruction in diverse types of music
this site will help you to know about music. You will be able to have the basic idea on everything related to music.here i have explained about the history of music, different artists and different style of world music.
